Multidisciplinary
Collaborative Journal | Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal
.editorialdoso
.com
1
ISSN:
3073
-
1356
Artic
le
Diversity of pollinating butterflies of native plants in the
biological corridor of La María campus, Mocache
,
Ecuador
Odalis Celine Vilela Sabando
1
,
A
ngel Virgilio Cedeño Moreira
2
,
*
,
Gerald Amador Saldarreaga
Chichande
3
and
Felix Rodolfo Almeida
Calderón
4
1
Universidad
Técnica Estatal de Quevedo,
Facultad de
C
iencias
P
ecuarias y
B
iológicas
Ecuador,
Quevedo
;
https://orcid.org/0009
-
0004
-
0949
-
3646
;
ovilelas@uteq.edu.ec
2
Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo,
Facultad de
C
iencias
P
ecuarias y
B
iológicas
Ecuador,
Quevedo
;
https://orcid.org/0000
-
0002
-
6564
-
5
569
3
Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo,
Facultad de
C
iencias
P
ecuarias y
B
iológicas
Ecuador,
Quevedo
;
https://orcid.org/0009
-
0004
-
0029
-
9185
;
gsaldarreagac@uteq.edu.ec
4
Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo,
Facultad de
C
iencias
P
ecuarias y
B
iológicas, Ecuador, Quevedo;
https://orcid.org/0009
-
0
005
-
7588
-
5880
;
falmeidac@uteq.edu.ec
Correspondence
:
acedenom@uteq.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.70881/mcj/v3/n4/85
Abstract
: The conservation of pollinators is essential to maintain ecological
stability and the reproduction of native plants, especially in tropical regions
where habitat fragmentation compromises key ecological interactions.
Among these organisms, butterflies st
and out for their functional diversity and
adaptability in disturbed environments. This study evaluated the diversity of
pollinating butterflies in the biological corridor of the La María campus
(Mocache, Ecuador), through systematic transect sampling duri
ng the dry
season of 2024. Direct observation and capture using an entomological net
were employed, recording nine taxa belonging to different families of
Lepidoptera. Morphological characterization revealed adaptations for flight
and defensive mechanisms
such as mimicry, camouflage, and aposematism.
The analysis of relative incidence showed that
Heliconius
sp. was the
dominant species (25.00 ± 0.87%), followed by
Phoebis philea
and other taxa
with lower incidences. The community structure exhibited a speci
fic richness
of S = 9, a Shannon index (H′) of 2.08, and a Pielou’s evenness (J) of 0.9825,
indicating high alpha diversity with an equitable species distribution.
Additionally, six plant species were identified as associated with butterfly
pollination act
ivity, among them
Lantana camara
and
Silphium asteriscus
being the most incident. The plant community showed intermediate diversity
(H′ = 1.57; 1 − D = 0.78). The results reinforce the ecological value of
biological corridors as reservoirs of biodiversity
and promoters of functional
interactions in fragmented tropical ecosystems.
Keywords:
pollinating butterflies, native plants, ecological indices,
conservation
Resumen:
La conservación de los polinizadores es esencial para mantener
la estabilidad ecológica y la reproducción de plantas nativas, especialmente
en regiones tropicales donde la fragmentación del hábitat compromete
Cit
ation
:
Vilela Sabando, O. C.,
Cedeño Moreira, A. V., Saldarreaga
Chichande, G. A., & Almeida Calderón,
F. R. (2025).
Diversity of pollinating
butterflies of native plants in the
biological corridor of La María campus,
Mocache, Ecuador.
Multidisciplinary
Collabora
tive Journal
,
3
(4), 1
-
1
6
.
https://doi.org/10.70881/mcj/v3/n4/
85
Received
:
15/08/2025
Revised
:
22/0
9
/2025
Accepted
:
26/09/2025
Published
:
01/10/2025
Copyright:
© 2025
by the authors
.
This
article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the
Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(
https://creativecommons.org/license
s/by/4.0/
).
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
2
interacciones ecológicas clave. Entre estos org
anismos, las mariposas
destacan por su diversidad funcional y adaptabilidad en ambientes
perturbados. Este estudio evaluó la diversidad de mariposas polinizadoras
en el corredor biológico del campus La María (Mocache, Ecuador), mediante
muestreo sistemátic
o por transectos durante la estación seca de 2024. Se
emplearon observación directa y captura con red entomológica,
registrándose nueve taxones pertenecientes a diferentes familias de
Lepidoptera. La caracterización morfológica reveló adaptaciones para el
vuelo y mecanismos defensivos como mimetismo, camuflaje y
aposematismo. El análisis de incidencia relativa mostró que
Heliconius
sp.
fue la especie dominante (25,00 ± 0,87%), seguida de
Phoebis philea
y otros
taxones con incidencias menores. La estructura
comunitaria presentó una
riqueza específica de S = 9, un índice de Shannon (H′) de 2,08 y una equidad
de Pielou (J) de 0,9825, lo que indica alta diversidad alfa con una distribución
equitativa de especies. Además, se identificaron seis especies vegetales
asociadas a la actividad polinizadora de mariposas, entre ellas
Lantana
camara
y
Silphium asteriscus
como las de mayor incidencia. La comunidad
vegetal mostró una diversidad intermedia (H′ = 1,57; 1 − D = 0,78). Los
resultados refuerzan el valor ecológico
de los corredores biológicos como
reservorios de biodiversidad y promotores de interacciones funcionales en
ecosistemas tropicales fragmentados.
Palabras clave:
mariposas polinizadoras,
plantas nativas, índices
ecológicos, conservación
1.
INTRODUCTION
Pollinator biodiversity, particularly that of butterflies, is fundamental for maintaining the
structure and functionality of ecosystems, especially in tropical regions such as the
humid forests of Ecuador (Galetto et al., 2022). Butterflies not only repres
ent a key group
of insects in terms of biological diversity, but also play a crucial role in the pollination of
numerous plant species, facilitating fertilization and promoting genetic variability within
plant populations (Ammir et al., 2024).
This
pollination process is essential for the conservation of native plants, which in turn
provide habitat and food resources for multiple animal species, including other insects,
birds, and mammals (Duque
-
Trujillo et al., 2023). In the context of the biologica
l corridor
of the La María campus, located in the Mocache canton of Ecuador, the interaction
between butterfly diversity and native plants has not been sufficiently explored. This area
encompasses a variety of ecosystems that host high biodiversity of both
flora and fauna,
making it an ideal setting to study pollination patterns in the tropics. Understanding the
relationship between butterflies and native plants is vital for the development of effective
conservation strategies and sustainable management of
natural resources (Ancillotto et
al., 2024).
The biological corridor of the La María campus offers a unique opportunity to study local
ecological dynamics, particularly the interaction between pollinators and native plants
(Parra
-
Tabla & Arceo
-
Gómez, 2021)
. A detailed understanding of butterfly diversity and
their role in pollination will not only enhance our comprehension of ecological processes
in this ecosystem, but also provide relevant information for the conservation of plant
species that rely on thes
e pollinators for reproduction (Patil et al., 2024). Furthermore,
this study may yield valuable data on the vulnerability of plant communities in the face of
declining pollinator populations a phenomenon threatening global biodiversity due to
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
3
factors such
as climate change, habitat destruction, and pollution (Kantsa et al., 2023).
This study aims to assess the diversity of butterflies present in the biological corridor of
the La María campus and to analyze their role in the pollination of native plants in t
he
region. Using entomological and floristic methods, we seek to identify butterfly species
that interact with native flora, determine the plant species most dependent on these
pollinators, and evaluate pollination effectiveness based on butterfly richness
and
abundance. The results of this study will not only support biodiversity conservation in the
region but will also provide a solid scientific foundation for future research on pollinators
in tropical ecosystems.
2
.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
The study was c
onducted in the biological corridor of the La María campus, part of the
Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, located in Mocache canton, Los Ríos province,
Ecuador. This area comprises a mosaic of secondary vegetation and agroforestry crops
transitioning
toward ecologically restored systems. The geographical coordinates of the
sampling site are 1°01′30″S, 79°27′15″W, with an average elevation of 35 meters above
sea level.
Butterfly Sampling
Systematic sampling was carried out during the dry season of 2024
, using 100
-
meter
linear transects within the corridor. Each transect was surveyed three times daily (08:00
–
10:00, 11:00
–
13:00, and 15:00
–
17:00) for three consecutive weeks. Butterflies were
recorded both visually and through net capture using a standard 3
8 cm diameter
entomological net, following the protocols of Pollard and Yates (1993). Specimens were
handled with entomological forceps and placed in individual collection containers for
further analysis.
Morphological Identification
Morphological characte
rization was performed at the Biology Laboratory of UTEQ.
Specimens were anesthetized in a cold chamber (4 °C) and then photographed using a
Canon digital camera equipped with a 100 mm macro lens. Wing structures (shape,
venation, dorsal and ventral colora
tion, presence of tails or eyespots), body size, antenna
shape, and observed flight patterns were assessed. Taxonomic identification was based
on specialized keys for Neotropical Lepidoptera (DeVries, 1987; Lamas, 2004) and
compared with reference specimen
s from the Natural History Museum of the National
Institute of Biodiversity (INABIO). Genus and species were determined when possible,
and specific traits relevant to mimicry, camouflage, or aposematism were recorded.
Recording and Documentation
Photograph
s were organized and coded with letters (A
–
I) for inclusion in representative
figures. Each image was standardized with controlled lighting, neutral background, and
visible metric scale. Morphological data were tabulated for subsequent descriptive
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
4
analysis
, focusing on functional diversity associated with pollination adaptations in
human
-
impacted tropical ecosystems.
Relative Incidence
In each sampling unit, the number of individuals of each observed species was recorded
during the designated time
intervals, considering both flying individuals and those
perched on vegetation. Data were normalized by calculating the relative incidence
percentage for each species using the formula:
푅푒푙푎푡푖푣푒
푖푛푐푖푑푒푛푐푒
(
%
)
=
(
푛푖
푁
)
푋
100
Where
n
ᵢ
represents
the number of individuals of species
i
, and
N
is the total number of
individuals recorded across all sampling units. Each estimation was replicated in three
independent plots to ensure data representativeness.
Statistical analysis of differences among spec
ies was performed using one
-
way ANOVA,
followed by Tukey’s post hoc test for mean comparison (
p
< 0.05), in order to identify
statistically significant groupings. All analyses were conducted using R software,
employing the agricolae package for the post ho
c test application.
Ecological Diversity Analysis
The assessment of butterfly ecological diversity in the biological corridor of the La María
campus was based on data obtained from the standardized samplings described
previously. For this analysis, only in
dividuals taxonomically identified to the genus or
species level were considered, ensuring precision in the calculation of ecological indices.
Data were systematized by sampling unit (1 m²) and processed using commonly
accepted alpha diversity metrics in b
iological community studies.
Species richness (
S
) was estimated as the total number of distinct species recorded
during the sampling period, serving as a basic measure of taxonomic composition.
Diversity was quantified using the Shannon
–
Wiener index (
H′
),
which incorporates both
species richness and the relative abundance of individuals, allowing for the evaluation of
community structural complexity. In parallel, Pielou’s evenness index (
J
) was calculated
to express how evenly individuals are distributed am
ong the species present, by
normalizing the
H′
value in relation to the total number of species.
To complement the analysis, the Simpson index (
1 − D
) was used to measure the
probability that two randomly selected individuals belong to different
species. This index
is particularly useful for detecting ecological dominance within the evaluated community.
Additionally, maximum relative abundance was calculated, defined as the percentage
represented by the most frequent species in relation to the tot
al number of individuals
recorded, serving as an indicator of localized dominance while accounting for overall
system equity.
All calculations were performed using PAST software version 4.03 and the R statistical
environment version 4.3.1, specifically wit
h the support of the vegan package. The
resulting values enabled the interpretation of the ecological structure of the lepidopteran
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
5
community and its degree of resilience within a human
-
impacted tropical ecosystem.
3. RESULTS
3.1.
Morphological Characterization
The morphological characterization of butterflies observed in the biological corridor of
the La María campus at Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo documented a
representative diversity of species associated with pollinati
on processes in disturbed
tropical ecosystems. In total, nine taxa were recorded, corresponding to various genera
and families of Lepidoptera, with detailed wing structures and color patterns illustrated in
Figure 1.
The specimen identified as
Papilio cres
phontes
(Figure 1A), belonging to the family
Papilionidae, is distinguished by its considerable wingspan, black coloration with creamy
yellow spots, and prominent tails on the hindwings
—
features associated with defensive
and mimetic adaptations.
Agraulis v
anillae
(Figure 1B), a member of the Nymphalidae
family, exhibits bright orange wings with scattered black spots, a morphology typical of
fast
-
flying butterflies commonly found in open environments.
Specifically,
Dryas iulia
(Figure 1C) shows elongated wings with a uniform orange tone
and no contrasting markings, a feature related to camouflage strategies in dry vegetation
habitats. In contrast,
Anartia jatrophae luteipicta
(Figure 1D) displays eye
-
like patterns
on both wings
with light and dark brown tones that create an illusion of depth, serving as
a deterrent mechanism against predators.
Moreover,
Urbanus proteus
(Figure 1E), from the Hesperiidae family, exhibits a compact
morphology with triangular forewings in a greenish
-
brown color and an elongated
abdomen
—
traits that promote an erratic and rapid flight. Specimen F was classified
within the genus
Lasaia
(Riodinidae) and features iridescent metallic blue coloration on
the dorsal wings with dark margins, a trait common in
territorial species.
Likewise,
Phoebis philea
(Figure 1G), belonging to the Pieridae family, was easily
recognized by its uniformly yellow, elliptically shaped wings, and lack of visible dorsal
markings, enhancing its mimicry of senescent leaves. The genus
Heliconius
(Figure 1H)
was represented by a specimen with black wings and transverse white bands
—
an
aposematic pattern linked to chemical defense and Müllerian mimicry in Neotropical
environments.
Finally, the butterfly classified within the genus
Danaus
(Figure 1I) exhibited bright
orange coloration with black venation and white marginal spots, forming a classic
Batesian mimicry pattern that imitates toxic species such as
Danaus plexippus
.
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
6
Figure 1.
Morphological characterization of butterflies associated with the pollination of
native plants in the La María Biological Corridor, Mocache, Ecuador. The images show
the butterflies observed during the study, identified by letters from A to I. The
photogr
aphs were taken under controlled conditions to illustrate the complete
morphology of each species and their relevance in the pollination process.
3.2.
Relative Incidence
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
7
The analysis of butterfly relative incidence per square meter in the biological corrid
or of
the La María campus revealed significant differences (
p
< 0.05) among the observed
species (Figure 2). The species with the highest incidence was
Heliconius
sp., with an
average value of 25.00 ± 0.87%, statistically surpassing all other analyzed spec
ies, thus
establishing itself as the dominant taxon within the sampling system.
P
.
philea
showed
the second highest incidence, with a value of 16.67 ± 0.65%, also significantly different
from the remaining species.
In particular
,
Dryas iulia
,
A
.
jatrophae
, and
D
.
plexippus
exhibited intermediate incidence
values, ranging between 11.80% and 12.50%. These species were statistically grouped
within the same range, suggesting a relatively uniform distribution among these taxa.
In contrast,
U
.
proteus
showed a lower incidence (8.33 ± 0.34%), differing from the
intermediate group. Finally,
P
.
cresphontes
,
A
.
vanillae
, and
Lasaia
recorded the lowest
incidence values, all below 5%, with no significant differences among them, indicating
marginal presence wi
thin the study area. These results reflect a lepidopteran community
structure where few species exhibit high relative abundance, while the majority are less
frequently distributed.
Figure 2.
Relative incidence (%) of butterfly species per square meter (m²
) recorded in
the biological corridor of the La María campus, Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo.
Bars represent the mean ± standard error (n = 3). Different letters above the bars indicate
significant differences among species according to Tukey’s tes
t (p < 0.05).
3.3.
Lepidopteran Ecological Diversity
The diversity indices calculated for the butterfly community in the biological corridor of
the La María campus revealed high heterogeneity and evenness in species distribution
(Table 1). Species
richness (
S
) was 9, indicating a community with relatively broad
composition for a human
-
impacted environment.
e
e
c
c
d
e
b
a
c
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
Incidence/ m
2
(%)
Species
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
8
The Shannon index (
H′
= 2.08) indicated moderately high alpha diversity, reflecting not
only the number of species present but also a relatively
even distribution of individual
abundance. This result was supported by Pielou’s evenness index (
J
= 0.9825), which
shows that species are equitably represented in the community, with no strong
dominance by a single taxon.
The Simpson index (
1 − D
= 0.8722
) also confirmed this pattern, indicating a high
probability that two randomly selected individuals belong to different species.
Additionally, the maximum relative abundance was 24%, corresponding to the
Heliconius
species, which was the most frequently ob
served in the surveys, though it did not exert
absolute ecological dominance.
Table 1.
Ecological diversity indices for the butterfly community recorded. Shown are
maximum relative abundance (%), species richness (
S
), Shannon diversity index (
H′
),
Pielou’s evenness index (
J
), and Simpson diversity index (
1 − D
), calculated based on
counts per square meter (m²).
Index
Value
Maximum relative abundance (%)
24
Specific wealth (S)
9
Shannon Index (H′)
2,08
Pielou's fairness index (J)
0,9825
Simpson's Index (1 − D)
0,8722
3.4.
Morphological Identification of Plant Species
During the sampling in the biological corridor of the La María campus, six plant species
were identified whose foliar and floral morphology suggests a high level of interact
ion
with native and visiting butterflies in the ecosystem. Figure 4 displays the vegetative
(leaves) and reproductive (flowers) structures of these species, captured under
controlled conditions to highlight their diagnostic features.
Species (A)
Musa velutina
was characterized by large leaves with an entire blade and
prominent parallel venation, along with a terminal inflorescence bearing pink bracts and
fleshy fruits. (B)
Silphium asteriscus
exhibited an alternate arrangement of simpl
e
lanceolate leaves and a bright yellow capitulum
-
type flower, typical of the Asteraceae
family.
(C)
Alpinia purpurata
had oblong leaves arranged alternately and a terminal
inflorescence composed of overlapping pink bracts emerging from a robust scape.
Mea
nwhile, (D)
Heliconia latispatha
displayed elliptical leaves with entire margins and
an erect inflorescence with alternate orange
-
reddish bracts, enhancing visual attraction
for pollinators.
(E)
Heliconia psittacorum
showed similar foliage morphology but w
ith
more slender inflorescences and partially exposed flowers, suggesting a distinct pollen
transfer strategy within the same genus. Lastly, (F)
Lantana camara
exhibited opposite
leaves with serrated margins and a compound inflorescence of small flowers gr
ouped
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
9
into spherical clusters, colored in shades of orange and red, highly attractive to nectar
-
feeding lepidopterans
(Figure 3)
.
Figure 3.
Morphological identification of plant species associated with the presence of
butterflies in the biological corridor of the La María campus, Universidad Técnica Estatal
de Quevedo. The images show leaf and flower characteristics of the plant species
observ
ed during field sampling: (A)
Musa velutina
, (B)
S
ilphium
asteriscus
, (C)
Alpinia
purpurata
, (D)
Heliconia latispatha
, (E)
Heliconia psittacorum
, (F)
Lantana camara
.
3.5.
Incidence of Native Plant Species
The incidence of native plant species
presents
in the biological corridor of the La María
campus showed significant differences among species (
p
< 0.05), with values varying
widely depending on the type of plant evaluated
(Figure 4)
.
L.
camara
exhibited the
highest incidence, with an average o
f 33.33% per square meter, being statistically
different from all other species. It was followed by
Silphium asteriscus
, with an incidence
of 23.81%, indicating a high level of representation in the study area.
On the other hand
,
H
.
latispatha
and
M
.
velut
ina
showed similar incidences,
approximately 14.29%, suggesting a moderate distribution within the evaluated
A
B
C
D
E
F
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
10
ecosystem. In contrast,
H
.
psittacorum
presented a significantly lower incidence, while
A
.
purpurata
had the lowest recorded value, close to 4.76%.
Figure
4
.
Incidence (%) of native plant species per square meter in the biological corridor
of the La María campus. Different letters above the bars indicate statistically significant
differences between means according to Tukey’s test (
p
< 0.05). Values represent the
mean ± standard deviation.
3.6.
Diversity Indices for Plant Species
The diversity indices obtained in this study reveal a moderately diverse ecological
structure within the analyzed plant community
(Table 2)
. Species
richness (
S
) was 6,
indicating the presence of six distinct species in the evaluated area. The Shannon
diversity index (
H′
) reached a value of 1.57, reflecting intermediate diversity by
accounting for both species abundance and evenness.
Pielou’s evenness
index (
J
) was 0.874, suggesting a fairly uniform distribution of
individuals among the present species. Likewise, the Simpson index (
1 − D
) showed a
value of 0.78, confirming low dominance by any single species and thus a relatively
balanced community. The
maximum relative abundance recorded was 33.33%,
indicating that a single species accounted for one
-
third of all individuals, without fully
dominating the community.
Table
2
.
Ecological diversity indices obtained for the plant community in the biological
c
orridor. Included are values for species richness (
S
), Shannon index
H′
), Pielou’s
evenness index (
J
), Simpson index (
1 − D
), and maximum relative abundance (%).
Index
Value
Maximum relative abundance (%)
33,33
c
b
e
c
d
a
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
35,00
40,00
Incidence
/ m
2
(%)
Species
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
11
Specific wealth (S)
6
Shannon Index
(H′)
1,57
Pielou's fairness index (J)
0,874
Simpson's Index (1 − D)
0,78
4.
DISCUSSION
This study revealed intermediate butterfly diversity within the transects evaluated at the
La María campus. According to Halali et al. (2021), the high
presence and diversity of
butterflies in tropical zones can be attributed to various ecological, evolutionary, and
biogeographic factors converging in these ecosystems. Studies such as De Brito and De
Souza (2020) highlight the importance of understanding
ecological interactions and
perceptions of biodiversity, which aligns with our findings on the role of butterflies as key
pollinators in tropical ecosystems. Their work emphasizes how human perceptions and
ecological studies can synergize to inform conserv
ation strategies, particularly in
fragmented landscapes like the biological corridor examined here. Furthermore, Hulshof
et al. (2024) note that tropical regions especially those between the central tropics harbor
the highest levels of biodiversity globall
y and serve as ideal habitats for butterfly
development due to climatic stability, high primary productivity, and structurally complex
vegetation landscapes.
From an ecological standpoint, von Schmalensee et al. (2023) highlight that
consistently
warm temperatures and high humidity throughout the year in tropical regions support
rapid life cycles, multivoltine reproduction, and constant activity in butterfly populations
unlike temperate regions where entomological activity is seasonall
y restricted.
Additionally, López
-
Vázquez et al. (2024) demonstrated that the vegetative
heterogeneity of tropical ecosystems provides a broad array of ecological niches,
allowing for the coexistence of multiple species with diverse trophic requirements, b
oth
at the larval level (host plant specificity) and in adulthood (floral and nectar sources).
Other authors, such as Sinha et al. (2023), emphasize that butterflies have developed
complex co
-
adaptive relationships with tropical angiosperms, evidenced by s
pecialized
mouthpart structures (proboscises), mimicry patterns, and preferences for flowers with
specific colors, shapes, and chemical compositions. These interactions have promoted
speciation and ecological differentiation in various lepidopteran familie
s, including
Nymphalidae, Pieridae, and Papilionidae (Deoramnauth et al., 2025). Tropical
environments also exhibit ecological succession and habitat fragmentation dynamics
which, although potentially harmful to sensitive species, create expansion opportun
ities
for many generalist butterflies in secondary habitats and biological corridors (Bussan &
Schultz, 2023).
Ecuador's coastal region is characterized by a warm
-
humid climate, with average annual
temperatures above 24 °C and seasonal rainfall that suppor
ts continuous flowering of
numerous plant species. These conditions favor a constant availability of trophic
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
12
resources, both for larval stages (host plants) and adults (nectar sources), thereby
supporting stable and diverse lepidopteran populations through
out the year (Endara et
al., 2022).
The mosaic of secondary vegetation, agroforestry crops, and forest remnants in
disturbed areas such as the La María campus provides a range of microhabitats and
gradients in light, moisture, and plant structure. This res
ults in a broad array of ecological
niches for different butterfly species (Bruschini et al., 2024). Such conditions promote the
coexistence of taxa with distinct ecological strategies from generalist species like
A
.
vanillae
and
P
.
philea
to specialists like
Heliconius
sp., which maintain specific
associations with
Passiflora
species and exhibit chemical defenses linked to Müllerian
mimicry (Mattila et al., 2021).
Likewise, the presence of species such as
P
.
cresphontes
and
Danaus
sp. refl
ects broad
dispersal patterns and tolerance for fragmented landscapes, consistent with reports from
other tropical ecosystems with intermediate disturbance levels (Condamine et al., 2023).
The morphological traits observed such as aposematic patterns, prom
inent wing tails, or
cryptic coloration represent evolutionary adaptations that enhance survival under varying
predation pressures and interspecific competition (Mutamiswa et al., 2023).
Research on butterflies in tropical environments faces inherent limit
ations due to the high
ecological complexity and seasonality of these ecosystems. Climatic fluctuations,
including changes in precipitation and temperature, can drastically influence flight
activity, reproduction, and floral resource availability thereby a
ffecting the detectability
and representativeness of sampled species (Sunde et al., 2024). Moreover, many
tropical species exhibit cryptic behavior or are difficult to identify taxonomically,
especially when mimicry is present or when clear morphological k
eys for immature
stages are lacking (Tan et al., 2021). These challenges complicate exhaustive
assessments of diversity and plant
-
pollinator interactions, potentially compromising long
-
term ecological interpretations unless complemented by molecular method
s or
phenological studies (Núñez et al., 2022).
Several authors, including Chowdhury et al. (2023), stress that investigating butterfly
diversity and ecological function in tropical ecosystems is essential due to their key role
as bioindicators and pollina
tion agents in highly diverse yet vulnerable environments. As
butterflies rely on host plants and floral resources throughout their life cycles, they reflect
shifts in ecosystem structure and health (Kotze et al., 2022). Their study facilitates
understandi
ng of ecological connectivity, plant community resilience, and functional
stability in fragmented or anthropogenic landscapes. Furthermore, documenting
pollinator
–
plant interactions in tropical settings supports more targeted conservation
strategies, enabl
ing sustainable management of biological corridors and ecosystem
restoration efforts focused on critical services such as pollination (Oliveira et al., 2024).
5.
CONCLUSION
The biological corridor of the La María campus hosts a diverse and evenly distribut
ed
lepidopteran community, with
Heliconius
sp. emerging as the dominant species without
disrupting the balanced structure of the assemblage.
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
13
The documented butterfly
–
plant interactions underscore the role of biological corridors
as key areas for the conser
vation of pollination processes in fragmented tropical
ecosystems.
The study has certain limitations, primarily related to the temporal scope of sampling,
which was restricted to the dry season. This limitation may have affected the detection
of seasonal o
r migratory species, potentially leading to an underestimation of the full
Lepidopteran diversity in the area.
Future studies should consider year
-
round monitoring to capture the seasonal dynamics
of butterfly populations and their interactions with
native plants. Additionally, longitudinal
data collected over multiple years could help identify trends related to climate variability
and habitat alteration.
Authors’ Contributions:
Conceptualization, O.C.V.
-
S. and A.V.C.
-
M.; methodology,
O.C.V.
-
S., A.V.C
.
-
M., and G.A.S.
-
C.; investigation, O.C.V.
-
S., G.A.S.
-
C., and F.R.A.
-
C.;
validation, A.V.C.
-
M.; formal analysis, G.A.S.
-
C.; resources, A.V.C.
-
M.; data curation,
O.C.V.
-
S. and G.A.S.
-
C.; writing
—
original draft preparation, O.C.V.
-
S. and G.A.S.
-
C.;
writing
—
r
eview and editing, A.V.C.
-
M. and F.R.A.
-
C.; visualization, O.C.V.
-
S.;
supervision, A.V.C.
-
M.; project administration, A.V.C.
-
M.; funding acquisition, none. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research
received no external funding.
Acknowledgments:
The authors sincerely thank the Technical State University of
Quevedo and the Faculty of Animal and Biological Sciences for their valuable support
throughout the development of this study. The collaboration of
the staff of the Biology
and Microbiology Laboratory, as well as the students of the Biology program who actively
participated in field and laboratory activities, is also acknowledged. Finally, the authors
extend their gratitude to the anonymous reviewers
for their constructive comments and
suggestions that helped improve the quality of this manuscript.
Data Availability Statement:
The data are available upon reasonable request from the
corresponding author:
aced
enom@uteq.edu.ec
Conflict of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES
Ammir, H., Shamiya, H., & Mohd Abdul, N. (2024). Bees, butterflies, and beyond the
diverse pollinators, an essence for the reproductive success of
flowering
plants.
Journal of plant science and phytopathology
,
8
(2), 065
–
073.
https://doi.org/10.29328/journal.jpsp.1001135
Ancillotto, L., Mosconi, F., & Labadessa, R. (2024). A matter of c
onnection: the
importance of habitat networks for endangered butterflies in anthropogenic
landscapes.
Urban Ecosystems
,
27
(5), 1623
–
1633.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252
-
024
-
01542
-
0
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
14
Bruschini, C., Simbula, G., Benetello, F., Dell’Olmo, L., Lazzaro, L., Mugnai, M., Paola,
F., Pasquali, L., & Dapporto, L. (2024).
Micro
-
habitat shifts by butterflies foster
conservation strategies to preserve pollinator diversity in a warming
Mediterranea
n climate.
Ecological Indicators
,
166
(112253), 112253.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.112253
Bussan, S. K., & Schultz, C. B. (2023). Can cattle grazing contribute to butterfly habitat
?
Using butterfly behavior as an index of habitat quality in an
agroecosystem.
Frontiers in ecology and evolution
,
11
.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1162060
Chowdhury, S., Dubey, V. K.,
Choudhury, S., Das, A., Jeengar, D., Sujatha, B., Kumar,
A., Kumar, N., Semwal, A., & Kumar, V. (2023). Insects as bioindicator: A hidden
gem for environmental monitoring.
Frontiers in environmental science
,
11
.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1146052
Condamine, F. L., Allio, R., Reboud, E. L., Dupuis, J. R., Toussaint, E. F. A., Mazet, N.,
Hu, S.
-
J., Lewis, D. S., Kunte, K., Cotton, A. M., & Sperling, F. A. H. (2023). A
comprehensive phylogen
y and revised taxonomy illuminate the origin and
diversification of the global radiation of Papilio (Lepidoptera:
Papilionidae).
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
,
183
(107758), 107758.
http
s://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2023.107758
De Brito, E. M., & De Souza, A. S. B. (2020). Análise da percepção de estudantes do
ensino médio sobre os insetos: um estudo de caso na cidade de Douradina,
Paraná.
Brazilian Journal Of Animal And Environmental Rese
arch, 3(3), 2082
-
2095. https://doi.org/10.34188/bjaerv3n3
-
120
Deoramnauth, D., Bhagarathi, L. K., Silva, P. N. B. D., Pestano, F., Kalika
-
Singh, S.,
Arjune, Y., & Maharaj, G. (2025).
Lepidopteran inventory and diversity of at two
sites at cotton tree, Maha
ica
-
Berbice, Guyana.
Journal of entomology and
zoology studies
,
13
(1), 39
–
50.
https://doi.org/10.22271/j.ento.2025.v13.i1a.9446
Duque
-
Trujillo, D., Hincapié, C. A., Osorio, M., & Zartha
-
Sossa, J. W. (2023).
Strategies
for the attraction and conservation of natural pollinators in agroecosystems: a
systematic review.
International Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology: IJEST
,
20
(4), 4499
–
4512.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762
-
022
-
04634
-
6
Endara, M.
-
J., Forrister, D., Nicholls, J., Stone, G. N., Kursar, T., & Coley, P. (2022).
Impacts of plant defenses on host choice by Lepidoptera in neo
tropical
rainforests.
En
Fascinating Life Sciences
(pp. 93
–
114). Springer International
Publishing.
Galetto, L., Aizen, M. A., Del Coro Arizmendi, M., Freitas, B. M., Garibaldi, L. A., Giannini,
T. C., Lopes, A. V., Do Espírito Santo, M. M., Maués, M. M.,
Nates
-
Parra, G.,
Rodríguez, J. I., Quezada
-
Euán, J. J. G., Vandame, R., Viana, B. F., & Imperatriz
-
Fonseca, V. L. (2022).
Risks and opportunities associated with pollinators’
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
15
conservation and management of pollination services in Latin America.
Ecologia
Au
stral
,
32
(1), 055
–
076.
https://doi.org/10.25260/ea.22.32.1.0.1790
Halali, S., van Bergen, E., Breuker, C. J., Brakefield, P. M., & Brattström, O. (2021).
Seasonal environments drive convergent e
volution of a faster pace
-
of
-
life in
tropical butterflies.
Ecology Letters
,
24
(1), 102
–
112.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13626
Hulshof, C. M., Ackerman, J. D., Franqui, R. A., Kawahara, A. Y., & Restrepo
, C. (2024).
Temperature seasonality drives taxonomic and functional homogenization of
tropical butterflies.
Diversity & Distributions
,
30
(7).
https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13814
Kantsa, A., De Moraes, C.
M., & Mescher, M. C. (2023). Global change and plant
–
pollinator communities in Mediterranean biomes.
Global Ecology and
Biogeography: A Journal of Macroecology
,
32
(11), 1893
–
1913.
https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13753
Kotze, D. J., Lowe, E. C., MacIvor, J. S., Ossola, A., Norton, B. A., Hochuli, D. F., Mata,
L., Moretti, M., Gagné, S. A., Handa, I. T., Jones, T. M., Threlfall, C. G., &
Hahs,
A. K. (2022). Urban forest invertebrates: how they shape and respond to the
urban environment.
Urban Ecosystems
,
25
(6), 1589
–
1609.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252
-
022
-
01240
-
9
López
-
Vázquez
, K., Lara, C., Corcuera, P., & Castillo
-
Guevara, C. (2024).
Temporal
shifts in flower
-
visiting butterfly communities and their floral resources along a
vegetation type altered by anthropogenic factors.
Forests
,
15
(9), 1668.
https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091668
Mattila, A. L. K., Jiggins, C. D., Opedal, Ø. H., Montejo
-
Kovacevich, G., Pinheiro de
Castro, É. C., McMillan, W. O., Bacquet, C., & Saastamoinen, M. (2021).
Evolutionary and ecological processes inf
luencing chemical defense variation in
an aposematic and mimetic Heliconius butterfly.
PeerJ
,
9
(e11523), e11523.
https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11523
Mutamiswa, R., Mbande, A., Nyamukondiwa, C., & Chid
awanyika, F. (2023).
Thermal
adaptation in Lepidoptera under shifting environments: mechanisms, patterns,
and consequences.
Phytoparasitica; Israel Journal of Plant Protection
Sciences
,
51
(5), 929
–
955.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12600
-
023
-
01095
-
6
Núñez, R., Willmott, K. R., Álvarez, Y., Genaro, J. A., Pérez
-
Asso, A. R., Quejereta, M.,
Turner, T., Miller, J. Y., Brévignon, C., Lamas, G., & Hausman
n, A. (2022).
Integrative taxonomy clarifies species limits in the hitherto monotypic passion
‐
vine butterfly genera Agraulis and Dryas (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae,
Heliconiinae).
Systematic Entomology
,
47
(1), 152
–
178.
https://doi.org/10.1111/syen.12523
Oliveira, J. B. B. S., Oliveira, H. F. M., Dáttilo, W., & Paolucci, L. N. (2024).
Anthropogenic
impacts on plant
-
pollinator networks of tropical forests: implications for pollinators
Multdisciplinary Collaboratve Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.0
4
|
Oct
–
Dic
| 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
16
coextinction.
Biodivers
ity and Conservation
.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531
-
024
-
02974
-
y
Parra
-
Tabla, V., & Arceo
-
Gómez, G. (2021). Impacts of plant invasions in native plant
-
pollinator networks.
The New Phytologist
,
230
(6), 2117
–
2128.
https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17339
Patil, P. B., Rajah, R. A., Bora, N. R., Brahma, D., Krishnan, S. N., Vasanth, V., Nath, I.,
Dutta, P. L., & Nitish, G. (2024). Pollination ecology:
Understanding plant
-
pollinator relationships.
International Journal of Research in Agronomy
,
7
(5),
101
–
105.
https://doi.org/10.33545/2618060x.2024.v7.i5b.654
Sinha, S. K., Dolai, A., Roy,
A. B., Manna, S., & Das, A. (2023). The flower colour
influences spontaneous nectaring in butterflies: A case study with twenty
subtropical butterflies.
Neotropical Entomology
,
52
(6), 1027
–
1040.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13744
-
023
-
01086
-
6
Sunde, J., Askling, J., Kindvall, O., Johansson, V., & Franzén, M. (2024). Negative
impacts of future forest succession on three threatened butterfly
species.
Biodiversity and Conservation
,
33
(10), 2885
–
2910.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531
-
024
-
02892
-
z
Tan, D., Parus, A., Dunbar, M., Espeland, M., & Willmott, K. R. (2021).
Cytochrome
c
oxidase subunit I barcode species delineation methods imply
critically
underestimated diversity in ‘common’
Hermeuptychia
butterflies
(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae).
Zoological Journal of the Linnean
Society
,
193
(4), 1256
–
1270.
https://doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlab007
Von Schmalensee, L., Caillault, P., Gunnarsdóttir, K. H., Gotthard, K., & Lehmann, P.
(2023). Seasonal specialization drives divergent population dynami
cs in two
closely related butterflies.
Nature Communications
,
14
(1), 3663.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467
-
023
-
39359
-
8