Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
ISSN:
3073
-
1356
161
Artic
le
Influence of Floating Aquatic Macrophytes on the Structure
and Diversity of the Ichthyofauna in the Tropical Lagoon of
the La María Campus (Ecuador)
Gerald Amador Saldarreaga Chichande
1
,
Ángel Virgilio Cedeño Moreira
2
,
*
,
Odalis Celine Vilela
Sabando
3
and
Carlos Antonio Galarza Romero
4
1
Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo,
Facultad de ciencias pecuarias y
biológicas
Ecuador,
Quevedo
;
https://orcid.org/0009
-
0004
-
0029
-
9185
;
gsaldarreagac@uteq.edu.ec
2
Universidad Té
cnica Estatal de Quevedo,
Facultad de ciencias pecuarias y
biológicas
Ecuador,
Quevedo
;
https://orcid.org/0000
-
0002
-
6564
-
5569
;
acedenom@uteq.edu.ec
3
Univers
idad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo,
Facultad de ciencias pecuarias y
biológicas
Ecuador,
Quevedo
;
https://orcid.org/0009
-
0004
-
0949
-
3646
;
ovilelas@uteq.edu.ec
4
Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo,
Facultad de ciencias pecuarias y
biológicas, Ecuador, Quevedo;
https://orcid.org/0009
-
0005
-
7684
-
9494
;
cgalarzar@uteq.edu.ec
*
Correspondenc
e
:
acedenom@uteq.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.70881/mcj/v3/n4/97
Abstract
:
Aquatic macrophytes play a fundamental role in the ecological
dynamics of tropical lentic ecosystems, acting as modulators of habitat
structure. Therefore, this study evaluated the influence of aquatic
macrophytes on the structure and diversity of ichthyof
auna in the lagoon of
the La María campus, Mocache canton, Ecuador. Systematic sampling and
morphological characterization were applied to identify six species of
macrophytes and five species of freshwater fish, using specialized taxonomic
keys.
Eichhornia
crassipes
was the most prevalent macrophyte (34.98%),
while
Hyphessobrycon sp
. showed the highest representation within the
ichthyofauna (68.96%). The ecological diversity analysis revealed a
structurally balanced plant community (H′ = 1.61; J = 0.90; 1 −
D = 0.77), in
contrast to a fish community dominated by a single species (H′ = 0.92; J =
0.57; 1 − D = 0.48). Macrophytes acted as key elements in providing
microhabitats, food, and shelter, supporting the persistence and reproduction
of smaller fish spec
ies. However, the overpopulation of
E. crassipes
represents a potential ecological risk due to the associated reduction of
dissolved oxygen. Ecological management of this species is recommended
through biocontrol agents and selective removal, as well as ac
tive
conservation of vulnerable species such as
Nymphaea amazonum
, to
maintain the functionality of the aquatic ecosystem. The findings provide
evidence of the dual role of macrophytes as ecological facilitators and, in
certain contexts, as agents of envir
onmental imbalance in urban tropical
wetlands.
Keywords:
Aquatic macrophytes; Ichthyofauna; Diversity; Tropical wetlands;
Ecological management
Cita
tion
:
Saldarreaga Chichande, G.
A., Cedeño Moreira, Ángel V., Vilela
Sabando, O. C., & Galarza Romero, C.
A. (2025). Influencia de las macrófitas
acuáticas flo
tantes en la estructura y
diversidad de la ictiofauna de la laguna
tropical del campus La María
(Ecuador).
Multidisciplinary
Collaborative Journal
,
3
(4), 161
-
177.
https://doi.org/10.70881/mcj/v3/
n4/97
Received
:
09/09/2025
Revised
:
05/12/2025
Accepted
:
08/12/2025
Published
:
10/12/2025
Copyright:
©
2025 by the authors.
This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms
and conditions of the
Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY)
license
(
https://creativecommons.org/l
icenses/by
-
nc/4.0/
)
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
162
Resumen:
Las macrófitas
acuáticas cumplen un rol fundamental en la
dinámica ecológica de los ecosistemas lénticos tropicales, actuando como
moduladores de la estructura del hábitat. Por lo tanto, este estudio evaluó la
influencia de las macrófitas acuáticas sobre la estructura y
diversidad de la
ictiofauna en la laguna del campus La María, cantón Mocache, Ecuador. Se
aplicó muestreo sistemático y caracterización morfológica para identificar
seis especies de macrófitas y cinco especies de peces de agua dulce,
utilizando claves tax
onómicas especializadas.
Eichhornia crassipes
fue la
macrófita de mayor incidencia (34,98%), mientras que
Hyphessobrycon sp
.
presentó la mayor representatividad dentro de la ictiofauna (68,96%). El
análisis de diversidad ecológica mostró una comunidad vege
tal
estructuralmente equilibrada (H′ = 1,61; J = 0,90; 1 − D = 0,77), en contraste
con una comunidad íctica dominada por una sola especie (H′ = 0,92; J = 0,57;
1 − D = 0,48). Las macrófitas actuaron como elementos clave en la provisión
de microhábitats, al
imento y refugio, favoreciendo la permanencia y
reproducción de especies ícticas menores. Sin embargo, la sobrepoblación
de
E. crassipes
representa un riesgo ecológico potencial, asociado a la
reducción de oxígeno disuelto. Se recomienda el manejo ecológic
o de esta
especie mediante biocontroladores y remoción selectiva, así como la
conservación activa de especies vulnerables como
Nymphaea amazonum
,
para mantener funcionalidad del ecosistema acuático. Los hallazgos aportan
evidencia sobre el papel dual de la
s macrófitas como facilitadoras ecológicas
y, en ciertos contextos, como agentes de desequilibrio ambiental en
humedales tropicales urbanos.
Palabas clave
: Macrófitas acuáticas, Ictiofauna, Diversidad, Humedales
tropicales, Manejo ecológico
1.
Introduction
Aquatic macrophytes
,
particularly floating and emergent species
,
are fundamental
components of tropical lentic ecosystems, where they perform multiple ecological
functions that support system productivity, stability, and biodiversity (Lind et al., 2022).
These plants actively contribute to processes such as nutrient regulation, improvement
of water quality, substrate stabilization, and the provision of structurally complex
microhabitats (Lim & Do, 2023). The heterogeneity they create within the water colum
n
directly influences the distribution of light, dissolved oxygen, and temperature, thereby
shaping the distribution and abundance of associated biological communities, including
the ichthyofauna (Ren et al., 2023).
In particular, floating macrophytes such
as
Eichhornia crassipes
(water hyacinth), Pistia
stratiotes (water lettuce), and Salvinia minima form extensive surface mats that can
significantly alter the vertical and horizontal structure of aquatic ecosystems (Hamid et
al., 2021). While their presenc
e at moderate levels can have positive effects by providing
refuge, food resources, and spawning areas for fishes, excessive proliferation can induce
hypoxic conditions, reduce light penetration, and alter trophic pathways, thereby
negatively affecting ich
thyofaunal diversity (Liu et al., 2025)
.
Ichthyofauna, in turn, responds with high sensitivity to changes in habitat and resource
availability, making it a widely used bioindicator group for assessing the ecological status
of inland aquatic systems (Da Sil
veira et al., 2023). Fish species exhibit diverse feeding,
behavioral, and reproductive strategies that are directly influenced by the prevailing
aquatic vegetation (Li et al., 2022). Previous studies have shown that the density,
structure, and composition
of macrophytes can shape species richness, relative
abundance, and dominance within fish assemblages (Ma et al., 2021).
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
163
I
n urban ecosystems
,
where anthropogenic pressures such as eutrophication, habitat
modification, and the introduction of non
-
native spe
cies are common
,
the role of aquatic
macrophytes can be dual: they may function as buffers against impacts or, in extreme
cases, as agents of ecological degradation (Maranho & Gomes, 2024). Nevertheless,
substantial gaps remain in the literature regarding
how floating macrophytes influence
the structure of fish communities in urban tropical water bodies, particularly in South
American regions with high biodiversity and limited ecological planning (Gebreselassie
et al., 2022)
.
The La María campus lagoon, loc
ated in the tropical region of Ecuador, is a human
-
impacted lentic ecosystem with persistent surface
-
floating macrophytes and a diverse
fish community, making it an ideal model for studying plant
–
animal interactions in an
urban context (Soomro et al., 2023
). Despite its ecological and functional importance,
this water body has been scarcely assessed from an integrated limnological perspective
(Martini et al., 2020).
In this context, the present study aims to evaluate the influence of floating aquatic
macrop
hytes on the structure and diversity of the ichthyofauna in the La María campus
lagoon. We analyze how vegetative cover affects patterns of species richness, relative
abundance, and trophic composition of the resident fishes, with the goal of establishing
functional relationships that clarify the ecological role of these plants in tropical
environments. The findings seek to contribute to the scientific understanding of urban
wetland ecology and to inform strategies for conservation and sustainable managemen
t
(Li et al., 2022).
2. M
ethodology
Study Area
The morphological and taxonomic characterization of aquatic macrophytes was carried
out in the lagoon of the La María campus, located in Mocache canton, Los Ríos province,
Ecuador (1°12'45.0''S, 79°28'34.5''W). The lagoon has an approximate surface area of
0.45 ha, a maximum depth of 2.1 m, and is surrounded by secondary vegetation and
intervened pasture areas. The local climate corresponds to a tropical monsoon regime,
with average annual rainfall exceeding 1800 mm and a mean temperature of 27 °C.
Sampling
design and specimen collection
Macrophyte sampling followed a targeted approach covering representative lagoon
microhabitats (shallow margins, shaded areas, open water, and edges with accumulated
organic matter). Ten 1 m² plots were delineated and systema
tically distributed along the
perimeter and accessible interior zones of the lagoon. Within each plot, all visible aquatic
plant species were recorded and manually collected. Specimens were placed in
moistened plastic bags, labeled with plot code and colle
ction date, and transported to
the UTEQ Biology laboratory for taxonomic analysis.
Morphological processing and taxonomic identification
Once in the laboratory, specimens were carefully washed with distilled water to remove
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
164
sediments and detritus. Detailed morphological analysis was then performed using a
stereomicroscope (40×) and a millimeter
-
scale ruler to record diagnostic characters su
ch
as stem type, leaf arrangement, leaf shape, presence of stolons or rhizomes, root
structure, inflorescence type, and floral coloration. Observations were photographically
documented to provide visual support for diagnoses
.
Taxonomic identification was c
arried out using specialized keys for the aquatic flora of
Tropical America, including the manuals by Cook (1990), Holm
-
Nielsen et al. (1994), and
the
Flora del Ecuador
(Herbario QCA and QCNE). In cases of morphological ambiguity,
characters were cross
-
che
cked against reference specimens deposited in the QCA
(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador) and GUAY (Universidad de Guayaquil)
herbaria. Nomenclature was validated against The Plant List and Tropicos.org to ensure
up
-
to
-
date taxonomic consistency
.
Species recording and validation
A total of six aquatic macrophyte species were identified. Validation criteria included the
consistency of diagnostic morphological characters with accepted taxonomic
descriptions and confirmation by specialists in aquatic
flora. Species were recorded
under their accepted scientific names, together with their botanical families and the
principal distinguishing characters observed in the field and laboratory. Final
identifications were corroborated through comparison with th
e scientific literature and
specialized dichotomous keys.
Incidence per square meter
(m²)
To determine the incidence of each aquatic macrophyte species, we used the number of
occurrences per unit area as the base variable. In each of the ten 1 m² plots est
ablished
in the La María campus lagoon, the presence or absence of each identified species was
recorded (presence = 1; absence = 0). We then summed the presences of each species
across plots and calculated its relative frequency, expressed as the percentag
e of
occurrence per square meter.
Incidence per m² (%) was computed as
:
Statistical analysis
Percentage
-
incidence data by species were analyzed using a one
-
way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) to detec
t significant differences among macrophyte species in their
spatial distribution. Assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variances were
assessed with the Shapiro
–
Wilk and Levene tests, respectively. When significant effects
were detected (p < 0.05), T
ukey’s honest significant difference (HSD) post hoc test was
applied to group species statistically according to their incidence levels.
All statistical analyses were performed in R v4.3.1 (R Core Team, 2023) using the
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
165
agricolae
package. Results are repor
ted as means ± standard error. Species were
classified into homogeneous incidence groups based on the letters assigned by the
Tukey HSD test.
Ecological diversity analysis
The assessment of ecological diversity for aquatic macrophytes and the
ichthyofauna in
the La María campus lagoon was based on relative
-
abundance data obtained from the
ten 1 m² plots described above. For each species, we determined the total number of
individuals and its relative proportion with respect to the total individu
als recorded across
the entire survey
.
From these data, several diversity indices were calculated. Species richness (S) was
defined as the total number of species recorded in the study area.
Shannon
–
Wiener
diversity (H′) was computed as:
W
he
re pi
is the proportion of individuals of species i relative to the total number of
individuals of all species.
To estimate evenness in the distribution of individuals among
species, we applied Pielou’s evenness index (J), defined as:
W
he
re S is species richness and ln
S
its natural logarithm. We also calculated Simpson’s
index in its complementary form (1−D), which indicates the probability that two randomly
selected individuals belong to different species:
w
here pi^2
rep
resents the squared relative proportion of each species. All calculations
were performed using PAST v4.13 and validated with the vegan package in R v4.3.1.
The resulting values were interpreted as indicators of the ecological structure of the
aquatic syste
m, with emphasis on dominance, evenness, and the stability of the
macrophyte community.
Morphological characterization of the ichthyofauna
Fish species were identified using a detailed morphological characterization protocol
applied to specimens collected from the La María campus lagoon, Mocache Canton, Los
Ríos Province, Ecuador. Specimens were captured by hand and with fine
-
mesh seine
nets
(0.5 cm) during morning sampling periods (06:00
–
09:00) in representative sectors
across the water body. Each individual was placed in plastic bags containing lagoon
water and transported under low
-
temperature conditions to the laboratory for taxonomic
anal
ysis.
Preparation and examination of specimens
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
166
Once in the laboratory, specimens were anesthetized with an
d
eugenol solution (clove
oil, 0.1%) and fixed in 10% formalin, then preserved in 70% ethanol. Each specimen was
labeled and measured with a digital c
aliper (±0.01 mm) to record standard length (SL),
total length (TL), and other relevant morphometric variables
.
An external morphological assessment was conducted for each individual, recording
diagnostic characters such as body shape, fin length and morph
ology, coloration pattern,
scale type, head structure, and lateral
-
line configuration. Observations were supported
by a stereomicroscope (40×) and documented with high
-
resolution digital photography
.
Taxonomic determination
Taxonomic identification of eac
h specimen was carried out using specialized keys for
Neotropical freshwater fishes, such as those published by Reis et al. (2003), Gery
(1977), and INABIO guides (Ecuador). Dichotomous keys were applied, and
morphological traits were cross
-
referenced with
taxonomic descriptions available in
scientific databases including FishBase, Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes, and specialized
books on Characiformes and Cichlidae
.
Each species was identified to the specific or generic level, depending on the clarity of
dia
gnostic characters. In cases of uncertainty or juvenile morphologies, the designation
sp.
was used to indicate a confirmed genus but undetermined species. Alphabetic codes
(A
–
E) were assigned to link species with reference images, facilitating their graphical
representation in the results
.
3. R
esults
3.1. Morphological Characterization
The mor
phological and taxonomic characterization identified six aquatic macrophyte
species present in the La María campus lagoon using specialized botanical keys. Figure
2 presents the identified species together with their principal diagnostic traits: (A)
L
.
adscendens
, characterized by floating or partially emergent stems, alternate lanceolate
to ovate leaves, and solitary axillary white flowers; (B)
Eichhornia crassipes
, with bulbous
floating petioles, waxy leaves, violet flowers arranged in a spike, and den
se fibrous roots;
(C)
C
.
pteridoides
, a floating aquatic fern with highly dissected fronds and fine fibrous
roots
.
Continuing with the remaining taxa depicted in Figure 2,
(D)
N
.
amazonum
, recognized
by orbicular floating leaves with a deep basal sinus and
waxy blades, commonly bearing
large emergent white flowers; (E)
L
.
helminthorrhiza
, with stoloniferous floating stems,
reddish adventitious roots at the nodes, rounded leaves, and small axillary white flowers;
and (F)
Salvinia minima
, a small free
-
floatin
g plant with leaves in whorls of three, covered
with hydrophobic hairs on the leaf surface.
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
167
Figure 1.
Morphological and taxonomic characterization of aquatic macrophytes
identified in the La María campus lagoon (
Mocache, Ecuador). (A)
Ludwigia adscendens
;
(B)
Eichhornia crassipes
; (C)
Ceratopteris pteridoides
; (D)
N
ymphaea
.
amazonum
; (E)
Ludwigia helminthorrhiza
; (F)
Salvinia minima
. Diagnostic traits used for taxonomic
identification
based on
specialized botanical keys
are highlighted
.
Incidence per square meter (m²) of macrophyte species
The species with the highest incidence was
E
.
crassipes
, reaching a mean value of
34.98%, significantly higher than all other species.
L
.
helminthorrhiza
,
L
.
adscendens
,
and
Salvinia minima
showed intermediate incidences of 19.62%, 16.55%, and 15.70%,
respectively; these did not differ significantly from one a
nother and were statistically
grouped with the highest
-
incidence species. In contrast,
C
.
pteridoides
and
N
.
amazonum
exhibited the lowest incidences, averaging 9.21% and 3.92%, respectively,
both significantly lower than the highest
-
incidence group, indic
ating a restricted or limited
distribution within the study area. The predominance of
E. crassipes
in the lagoon’s
macrophyte community points to marked differences in the spatial distribution of the
evaluated species
.
A
B
C
D
E
F
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
168
Figure 2.
Percentage
incidence per square meter (m²) of aquatic macrophytes present
in the La María campus lagoon. Bars represent mean ± standard error (n = 3). Different
letters above the bars indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) according to ANOVA
followed by Tukey’s
HSD test.
Ecological diversity of aquatic macrophytes
cological diversity analyses of the aquatic macrophytes in the La María campus lagoon
revealed a community of moderate richness and high evenness. Species richness was
six, while Shannon diversity (H′)
reached 1.61, indicating relatively high diversity.
Pielou’s evenness (J) was 0.90, suggesting a fairly uniform distribution of individuals
among species. Simpson’s index in its complementary form (1−D) was 0.77, confirming
low species dominance and, there
fore, an ecologically balanced community. Despite this
uniformity, one species was dominant
E
.
crassipes
with a relative abundance of 36.54%,
standing out above the remaining species. Overall, these values indicate slight
dominance but an adequate level of
structural diversity, which is favorable for the
ecological stability of the studied aquatic ecosystem.
Table 1.
Ecological indices calculated for the aquatic macrophyte community in the La María
campus lagoon (Mocache
, Ecuador). Shown are the relative abundance (%) of the
dominant species, Shannon diversity (H′), species richness (S), Pielou’s evenness (J),
and Simpson’s diversity (1−D).
a
ab
ab
ab
b
b
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Incidence/ m² (%)
Macrophyte species
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
169
Index
Va
lue
Maximum relative abundance
(%)
:
36,54
Shannon diversity
(H')
:
1,61
Species richness
:
6
,00
Pielou’s evenness
(J)
:
0,9
0
Simpson’s index
(1
-
D)
:
0,77
Morphological characterization of the ichthyofauna
Based on morphological characterization using taxonomic keys and diagnostic reference
criteria, five species of freshwater fish were identified in the Mocache region, Ecuador.
Species A was identified as
A
.
rivulatus
, distinguished by its deep, laterally c
ompressed
body, extended dorsal and anal fins, and a dark spot in the opercular region. Species B
corresponds to
H
.
malabaricus
, readily recognized by its robust body, prominent lower
jaw, and caniniform dentition typical of carnivorous species.
Species C
was classified as
Hyphessobrycon
sp., a small characid with an elliptical body,
reddish caudal and anal fins, and a characteristic humeral spot for the genus. Species
D, identified as
L
.
bimaculata
, exhibits a cylindrical, elongate body with reddish dorsal
and caudal fins and two distinctive lateral black spots on the caudal peduncle. Finally,
Species E was recognized as
B
.
bucay
, characterized by a fusiform body, a complete
lateral line, bright silvery coloration, and a slight yellowish hue in the fins
A
B
C
E
D
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
170
Figure 3.
Morphological characterization of freshwater fishes collected from water
bodies in Mocache, Ecuador, identified using taxonomic keys.
(A)
Andinoacara rivulatus
;
(B)
Hoplias malabaricus
; (C)
Hyphessobrycon
sp.; (D)
Lebiasina bimaculata
; (E)
Bryconamericus bucay
.
Ichthyofaunal incidence
The incidence analysis (%) revealed statistically significant differences among the
evaluated species (p < 0.05), as shown in Figure 3.
Hyphessobrycon
sp. recorded the
highest incidence, with a mean value of 68.97 ± 2.1%, significantly exceeding all other
species.
B
.
bucay
showed the second
-
highest incidence, with a mean of 20.69 ± 0.8%.
By contrast,
A
.
rivulatus
and
L
.
bimaculata
exhibited significantly lower values, with
incidences of 5.17 ± 0.5% and 3.45 ± 0.4%, respectively. The species with the lowest
incidence was
H
.
malabaricus
, at 1.72 ± 0.2%, significantly lower than the rest. Different
letters above the bars indicate significant differences according to Tukey’s multiple
comparison test (p < 0.05).
Figure 4.
Incidence (%) of the evaluated variable
in five fish species collected from the
La María campus lagoon, Mocache Canton, Ecuador. Bars represent mean ± standard
error. Different letters above the bars indicate significant differences among species
according to Tukey’s test (p < 0.05).
Ecological
diversity of the ichthyofauna
The ecological diversity analysis of the ichthyofauna in the La María campus lagoon,
Mocache (Ecuador), revealed a community structure dominated by a single species.
Maximum relative abundance reached 68.96%, indicating a str
ong predominance of one
species over the others. Shannon diversity (H′) was 0.92, reflecting low
-
to
-
moderate
diversity within the assemblage
.
Species richness was five, suggesting a relatively limited ichthyofaunal community in
terms of the number of taxa.
Pielou’s evenness (J=0.57) indicated an uneven distribution
cd
e
a
d
b
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
70,00
80,00
Incidence (%)
Species
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
171
of individuals among species, corroborating the observed dominance. Finally, Simpson’s
index in its complementary form (1−D=0.48)
showed that the probability that two
randomly selected individual
s belong to different species is below 50%, reinforcing the
interpretation of low evenness and diversity
.
Table 2.
Ecological indices of diversity, evenness, and dominance for the ichthyofauna recorded
in the La María campus lagoon, Mocache Canton, Ecuado
r. Reported are maximum
relative abundance, Shannon diversity (H′), species richness (total number of species),
Pielou’s evenness (J), and Simpson’s diversity (1 − D) as indicators of the community
structure of the fish assemblage.
4.
Discussion
Aquatic macrophyte species exhibit specific ecological adaptations that enable them
to
colonize and thrive under the particular environmental conditions of aquatic ecosystems,
including variation in oxygenation, light penetration, substrate type, and depth (Lürig et
al., 2020). These adaptations are expressed through distinctive morpholog
ical traits
,
for
example,
E
.
crassipes
bears inflated, bulbous petioles that confer buoyancy, whereas
S
.
minima
has leaves covered with hydrophobic trichomes that repel water and facilitate
flotation (Doležal et al., 2021). Such functional features not onl
y reflect adaptive capacity
but also allow precise taxonomic identification via field and laboratory morpho
-
anatomical analysis (Szoszkiewicz et al., 2025)
From an ecological standpoint, macrophytes are widely documented across tropical
water bodies in Lat
in America, commonly occurring in lagoons, canals, riparian zones,
and wetlands with high organic loads (Rodrigo, 2021). Their importance lies in their role
as refuges and habitats for numerous invertebrates, juvenile fishes, and amphibians, as
well as in
water
-
purification processes through the uptake of nutrients and heavy metals
(Sarkar et al., 2021). Likewise, some species, such as
L
.
adscendens
and
C
.
pteridoides
,
contribute to micro
-
ecosystem stability by reducing substrate erosion and enhancing
disso
lved oxygen via photosynthesis (Ren et al., 2023). The presence and composition
of these macrophytes therefore serve as sensitive indicators of a water body’s ecological
status and the gradients of environmental disturbance to which it is subjected (Vukov
et
al., 2023).
Among the identified species,
N
.
amazonum
stands out not only for its aesthetic and
functional value within the aquatic ecosystem but also for its conservation relevance
Index
Value
Maximum relative abundance (%)
68.96
Shannon diversity (H')
:
0.92
Species richness
:
5
.
00
Pielou’s evenness
(J):
0.57
Simpson’s index
(1
-
D):
0.48
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
172
(Rasool et al., 2023). This aquatic plant
characterized by orbicular floating leaves with a
basal sinus and emergent white flow
ers
,
is widely distributed across South American
freshwater bodies, including Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Colombia, and Bolivia (Dehgan,
2022). Nevertheless, despite its broad geographic range, multiple populations of
N.
amazonum
are currently in decline due to
aquatic habitat degradation, water pollution,
agricultural expansion, and the introduction of invasive species (Nzei et al., 2024). In
some countries it has been categorized regionally as at risk or vulnerable, underscoring
the need for monitoring and con
servation strategies (Wright et al., 2022). Its presence in
the La María campus lagoon constitutes a positive indicator of ecological quality and, at
the same time, a key opportunity to promote local protection actions for a species that
may be at risk of
extinction.
By contrast,
E crassipes
(water hyacinth) showed a high incidence in the study area,
indicating a potential condition of overabundance (Djihouessi et al., 2023). Although
native to South America, this species has exhibited invasive behavior in
numerous
tropical and subtropical ecosystems owing to its high rate of vegetative reproduction and
its capacity to form dense floating biomasses (Ferreira et al., 2025). Excessive
proliferation can severely alter trophic niches by blocking solar radiation,
decreasing
dissolved oxygen, and displacing sensitive native species
both plants and animals
(Subramanian et al., 2023). It also limits aquatic fauna’s access to food resources and
spawning habitats, affecting the structure and functioning of local trophi
c networks
(Borgå et al., 2022). As management alternatives, the use of natural biocontrol agents
such as insects of the genus
Neochetina
, together with scheduled mechanical removal
and valorization of harvested biomass for compost, biogas, or even paper p
roducts, has
been proposed
,
an approach that would enable ecologically responsible and sustained
containment (Ramírez et al., 2024).
The presence of aquatic macrophytes not only directly shapes the ecosystem’s physical
structure but also plays a fundamenta
l role in configuring ichthyofaunal diversity
(Brysiewicz et al., 2022). The plant species identified
such as
E
.
crassipes
,
L
.
helminthorrhiza
,
S
.
minima
, and
N
.
amazonum
create complex, heterogeneous habitats
that provide refuge, feeding grounds, and
spawning areas for a variety of fishes
(Machado et al., 2021)
.
For example, the pendent roots of
E. crassipes
and
S. minima
form three
-
dimensional
microhabitats where nutrients accumulate and aquatic invertebrate communities
develop; these, in turn, serve
as food resources for species such as
Hyphessobrycon
sp. and
B
.
bucay
(Chakraborty et al., 2023). Likewise, shaded zones beneath the floating
leaves of
N. amazonum
and
C
.
pteridoides
provide shelter from predators and elevated
temperatures, benefiting smal
ler
-
bodied or juvenile fishes such as
L
.
bimaculata
(Zaman
et al., 2025).
In addition, these plants help modulate the water’s physicochemical conditions by
stabilizing surface temperatures, trapping sediments, and reducing turbidity, which
favors more sens
itive species such as
A
.
rivulatus
(Chakraborty et al., 2022). Therefore,
the diversity and distribution of aquatic macrophytes act as structuring factors that
promote the coexistence of multiple fish species, increase environmental heterogeneity,
and stre
ngthen the ecosystem’s ecological resilience (Sanders & Frago, 2024). Their
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
173
conservation and monitoring are thus key to maintaining trophic balance and the
functional integrity of the evaluated aquatic system (Ding et al., 2025)
.
The presence of certain aquatic macrophytes, such as
E
.
crassipes
, can play a pivotal
role in the proliferation of small fish species like
Hyphessobrycon
sp. by generating
favorable ecological conditions that directly influence their biological success (Sh
ahbaz
et al., 2023). These floating plants form dense, pendent root structures that create
complex three
-
dimensional habitats, providing effective refuge from piscivorous
predators
especially during juvenile stage
and thereby substantially reducing predati
on
pressure (Able et al., 2022). Additionally, the roots and stems of these macrophytes
promote the establishment of benthic and planktonic invertebrate communities, including
insect larvae, microcrustaceans, and rotifers, which constitute an essential foo
d source
for
Hyphessobrycon
sp. (Wink, 2024). The accumulation of organic matter in the
immediate vicinity of these plants further enriches the ecosystem’s trophic base (Cieśla
& Gruca
-
Rokosz, 2024).
5. C
onclusion
The presence and distribution of aquatic m
acrophytes in the La María campus lagoon
significantly influence the structure and diversity of the ichthyofauna. Species such as
E
.
crassipes
,
S
.
minima
, and
N
.
amazonum
create functionally complex habitats that
provide refuge, trophic resources, and spawning areas for small
-
bodied fishes, thereby
promoting the coexistence of species such as
Hyphessobrycon
sp. and
B
.
bucay
.
Although moderate diversity was recorded in bot
h the plant and fish communities, the
dominance of
E
.
crassipes
suggests a potential imbalance in the system’s ecological
dynamics, with negative implications for the availability of oxygen, light, and space for
other species
.
Authors’ Contributions:
Conce
ptualization, AVC
-
M. and GAS
-
C.; methodology, AVC
-
M., GAS
-
C., and OCV
-
S.; software, CAG
-
R.; validation, OCV
-
S.; formal analysis, GAS
-
C.; investigation, GAS
-
C. and OCV
-
S.; resources, AVC
-
M.; data curation, CAG
-
R.;
writing
—
original draft preparation, GAS
-
C.;
writing
—
review and editing, AVC
-
M. and
OCV
-
S.; visualization, CAG
-
R.; supervision, AVC
-
M.; project administration, GAS
-
C.;
funding acquisition, GAS
-
C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research rece
ived no external funding.
Acknowledgments:
The authors sincerely thank the Faculty of Animal and Biological
Sciences of the Technical State University of Quevedo, as well as its authorities, for their
support throughout the development of this work. The
collaboration of the staff of the
Laboratory of Microbiology and Biology and the students of the Biology program who
participated in field and laboratory activities is also acknowledged. Finally, the authors
extend their gratitude to the anonymous reviewer
s for their valuable comments and
suggestions that helped improve the quality of the manuscript.
Data Availability Statement:
The data are available upon request from the
corresponding authors
:
acedenom@uteq.edu.
ec
Conflict of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
174
REFERENCES
Able, K. W., Simenstad
, C. A., Strydom, N. A., Bradley, M., & Sheaves, M. (2022). Habitat
Use and Connectivity. En Fish and Fisheries in Estuaries (pp. 188
–
254). Wiley.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119705345.ch4
Borgå,
K., McKinney, M. A., Routti, H., Fernie, K. J., Giebichenstein, J., Hallanger, I., &
Muir, D. C. G. (2022). The influence of global climate change on accumulation
and toxicity of persistent organic pollutants and chemicals of emerging concern
in Arctic fo
od webs. Environmental Science. Processes & Impacts, 24(10), 1544
–
1576.
https://doi.org/10.1039/d1em00469g
Brysiewicz, A., Czerniejewski, P., Dąbrowski, J., Formicki, K., & Więcaszek, B. (2022).
Fish Div
ersity and Abundance Patterns in Small Watercourses of the Central
European Plain Ecoregion in Relation to Environmental Factors. Water, 14(17),
2697.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172697
Chakraborty, A., Sah
a, G. K., & Aditya, G. (2022). Macroinvertebrates as engineers for
bioturbation in freshwater ecosystem. Environmental Science and Pollution
Research International, 29(43), 64447
–
64468.
https://doi
.org/10.1007/s11356
-
022
-
22030
-
y
Chakraborty, S. K., Sanyal, P., & Ray, R. (2023). Biodiversity and its functional
significance: Case studies from east Kolkata wetlands. En Wetlands Ecology (pp.
379
–
520). Springer International Publishing.
Cieśla
, M., & Gruca
-
Rokosz, R. (2024). Fate of heavy metals in ecosystems of dam
reservoirs: transport, distribution and significance of the origin of organic matter.
Environmental Pollution, 361, 124811.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124811
Da Silveira, E. L., Semmar, N., Ballester, E. L. C., & Vaz
-
Dos
-
Santos, A. M. (2023).
Integrative Analysis to Manage Aquatic Resources Based on Fish Feeding
Patterns in Neotropical Rivers. Fishes, 8(3), 157.
https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8030157
Dehgan, B. (2022). ANGIOSPERMS: FLOWERING
PLANTS. En Garden Plants
Taxonomy (pp. 173
–
603). Springer International Publishing.
Ding, J., Yang, W., Dong, W., Liu, X., & Cui, B. (2025). Dominant and keystone genera
of microorganisms dominate the multi
-
trophic aquatic ecological integrity of the
Yang
tze finless porpoise reserve. Journal of Environmental Management,
380(125070), 125070.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.125070
Djihouessi, M. B., Olokotum, M., Chabi, L. C., Mouftaou,
F., & Aina, M. P. (2023).
Paradigm shifts for sustainable management of water hyacinth in tropical
ecosystems: A review and overview of current challenges. Environmental
Challenges, 11, 100705.
htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2023.100705
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
175
Doležal, J., Kučerová, A., Jandová, V., Klimeš, A., Říha, P., Adamec, L., &
Schweingruber, F. H. (2021). Anatomical adaptations in aquatic and wetland
dicot plants: Disentangling the environmental, morphological and
evolutionary
signals. Environmental And Experimental Botany, 187, 104495.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2021.104495
Ferreira, S., Sánchez, J. M., Gonçalves, J. M., Eugénio, R., & Damás
io, H. (2025).
Monitoring
Eichhornia crassipes
and
Myriophyllum aquaticum
in Irrigation
Systems Using High
-
Resolution Satellite Imagery: Impacts on Water Quality and
Management Strategies. AgriEngineering, 7(5), 151.
https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering7050151
Gebreselassie, S. S., Lechner, A. M., Hill, M. J., Teo, F. Y., & Gibbins, C. N. (2022). A
review of current knowledge and research priorities for c
onservation of lentic
biodiversity in tropical wet and monsoonal urban landscapes. Freshwater
Biology, 67(10), 1671
-
1689.
https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb.13981
Hamid, M. A., Ismail, S. N., & Mansor, M. (2021).
Overview of Macrophytes in The
Tropical Wetland Ecosystem. Indonesian Journal Of Limnology, 2(1), 25
-
34.
https://doi.org/10.51264/inajl.v2i1.12
Li, L., Balto, G., Xu, X., Shen, Y., & Li, J. (2022). T
he feeding ecology of grass carp: A
review. Reviews In Aquaculture, 15(4), 1335
-
1354.
https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12777
Lim, S., & Do, Y. (2023). Macroinvertebrate conservation in river ecosystems:
Challen
ges, restoration strategies, and integrated management approaches.
Entomological Research, 53(8), 271
-
290.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1748
-
5967.12665
Lind, L., Eckstein, R. L., & Relyea, R. A. (2022). D
irect and indirect effects of climate
change on distribution and community composition of macrophytes in lentic
systems. Biological Reviews/Biological Reviews Of The Cambridge Philosophical
Society, 97(4), 1677
-
1690.
https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12858
Liu, J., Liu, W., & Zhao, S. (2025).
Biology, Ecology and Management of Aquatic
Macrophytes and Algae (Volume I). Biology, 14(3), 246.
https://doi.org/10.
3390/biology14030246
Lürig, M. D., Best, R. J., Dakos, V., & Matthews, B. (2020). Submerged macrophytes
affect the temporal variability of aquatic ecosystems. Freshwater Biology, 66(3),
421
-
435.
https://do
i.org/10.1111/fwb.13648
Ma, F., Yang, L., Lv, T., Zuo, Z., Zhao, H., Fan, S., Liu, C., & Yu, D. (2021).
The
Biodiversity
–
Biomass Relationship of Aquatic Macrophytes Is Regulated by
Water Depth: A Case Study of a Shallow Mesotrophic Lake in China.
Frontiers In
Ecology And Evolution, 9.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.650001
Machado Filho, H., Barbosa, M. R. D. V., Torres, C. R. M., Lucena, M. de F. D. A., Da
Silva, L. P., Melo, J. I. M. de,
& Zickel, C. S. (2021).
The Plants associated with
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
176
aquatic and marshy environments in the state of Paraíba, northeastern Brazil.
Acta Brasiliensis, 5(1), 13.
https://doi.org/10.22571/2526
-
4338454
Mar
anho, L. T., & Gomes, M. P. (2024).
Morphophysiological Adaptations of Aquatic
Macrophytes in Wetland
-
Based Sewage Treatment Systems: Strategies for
Resilience and Efficiency under Environmental Stress. Plants, 13(20), 2870.
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13202870
Martini, S., Larras, F., Boyé, A., Faure, E., Aberle, N., Archambault, P., Bacouillard, L.,
Beisner, B. E., Bittner, L., Castella, E., Danger, M., Gauthier, O., Karp
B
oss, L.,
Lombard, F., Maps, F., Stemmann, L., Thiébaut, E., Usseglio
P
olatera, P., Vogt,
M., . . . Ayata, S. (2020). Functional trait
ba
sed approaches as a common
framework for aquatic ecologists. Limnology And Oceanography, 66(3), 965
-
994.
https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.11655
Nzei, J. M., Martínez
-
Médez, N., Mwanzia, V. M., Kurauka, J. K., Wang, Q., Li, Z., &
Chen, J. (2024). Climatic niche evolution and niche conservatism of
Nymphaea
species in Africa, Sout
h America, and Australia.
BMC Plant Biology, 24(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870
-
024
-
05141
-
1
Ramírez
-
Guzmán, N., Martínez
-
Medina, G., Rodriguez
-
Gonzalez, L., Chávez
-
González,
M. L., Hernández
-
Al
manza, A., & Aguilar, C. N. (2024).
Biofungicide production
by solid
-
state fermentation as sustainable biotechnology for agroindustrial
waste
management and fresh crop production. En Recent Advances in Postharvest
Technologies, Volume 1 (pp. 151
–
168). Springer International Publishing.
Rasool, S., Rasool, T., & Gani, K. M. (2023). Unlocking the potential of wetland biomass:
Treatment appr
oaches and sustainable resource management for enhanced
utilization. Bioresource Technology Reports, 23, 101553.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2023.101553
Rasool, Shahbaz, Ahmad, I., Jamal, A.,
Saeed, M. F., Zakir, A., Abbas, G., Seleiman, M.
F., & Caballero
-
Calvo, A. (2023).
Evaluation of phytoremediation potential of an
aquatic macrophyte (
Eichhornia crassipes
) in wastewater treatment.
Sustainability, 15(15), 11533.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511533
Ren, H., Wang, G., Ding, W., Li, H., Shen, X., Shen, D., Jiang, X., & Qadeer, A. (2023).
Response of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and microbial community to
submerged macrophytes restoration
in lakes: A review. Environmental Research,
231, 116185.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.116185
Ren, H., Wang, G., Ding, W., Li, H., Shen, X., Shen, D., Jiang, X., & Qadeer, A. (2023).
Res
ponse of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and microbial community to
submerged macrophytes restoration in lakes: A review.
Environmental Research,
231(Pt 2), 116185.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envre
s.2023.116185
Rodrigo, M. A. (2021).
Wetland Restoration with Hydrophytes: A Review. Plants, 10(6),
1035.
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061035
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
Multidisciplinary Collaborative Journal
| Vol.0
3
| Núm.04 | Oct
–
Dic | 202
5
| https://mcjournal.editorialdoso.com
177
Sanders, D., & Frago
, E. (2024). Ecosystem engineers shape ecological network
structure and stability: A framework and literature review. Functional Ecology,
38(8), 1683
-
1696.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1365
-
2435.14608
Sar
kar, S., Sarkar, U. K., Ali, S., Kumari, S., & Puthiyotti, M. (2021). Status, ecological
services and management of aquatic weeds of floodplain wetlands in India: An
overview. Lakes & Reservoirs Science Policy And Management For Sustainable
Use, 26(1), 76
-
91.
https://doi.org/10.1111/lre.12353
Soomro, S., Shi, X., Guo, J., Ke, S., Hu, C., Asad, M., Jalbani, S., Zwain, H. M., Khan,
P., & Boota
, M. W. (2023a). Are global influences of cascade dams affecting river
water temperature and fish ecology? Applied Water Science, 13(4).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201
-
023
-
01902
-
9
Subramanian, A.,
Nagarajan, A. M., Vinod, S., Chakraborty, S., Sivagami, K., Theodore,
T., Sathyanarayanan, S. S., Tamizhdurai, P., & Mangesh, V. L. (2023).
Long
-
term
impacts of climate change on coastal and transitional eco
-
systems in India: an
overview of its current status, future projections, solutions, and policies. RSC
Advances, 13(18), 12204
-
12228.
http
s://doi.org/10.1039/d2ra07448f
Szoszkiewicz, K., Pietruczuk, K., Jusik, S., Budka, A., & Pietruczuk, K. (2025). Richness
of macrophyte functional groups in relation to hydromorphological and
hydrochemical factors of organic rivers in the Biebrza National
Park.
Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 100667.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2025.100667
Vukov, D., Ilić, M., Ćuk, M., & Igić, R. (2023). Environmental Drivers of Functional
Structure and Diversi
ty of Vascular Macrophyte Assemblages in Altered
Waterbodies in Serbia. Diversity, 15(2), 231.
https://doi.org/10.3390/d15020231
Wink, M. (2025). Abstracts of the 3rd international electronic conference on
diversity:
Biodiversity of animals, plants and microorganisms. The 3rd International
Electronic Conference on Diversity: Biodiversity of Animals, Plants and
Microorganisms, 3.
Wright, P. G. R., Croose, E., & Macpherson, J. L. (2022). A global review of th
e
conservation threats and status of mustelids. Mammal Review, 52(3), 410
–
424.
https://doi.org/10.1111/mam.12288
Zaman, W., Ayaz, A., & Park, S. (2025). Nanomaterials in agriculture: A pathway to
enhance
d plant growth and abiotic stress resistance. Plants, 14(5), 716.
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050716